Attkins: Hoax or Legitimate Diet? Essay -- Health Nutrition Diet Exerc

Attkins Hoax or Legitimate Diet? I get out confess I had dismissed Atkins as a total hoax, particularly when my moms fifty-three-year-old friend developed serious osteoporosis, after a few years on the pabulum. Now, having researched the Atkins diet, Ive learned there is a fix thats positive about Atkins approach. Still, Im convinced there be better ways to get the benefits of Atkins without its downsides. As youre undoubtedly aw be, Dr. Atkins basic premise is that weve all been ingest alike many carbohydrates, especially refined white flour and sugar. If you exchange most of those carbohydrates with more fat and more protein, says Atkins, then youll lose weight. However, adverse to popular opinion, Atkins is non a no carb diet. Even in its unbending initial induction phase, Atkins allows three cups of salad leafy vegetable or two cups of greens plus one cup of chopped non-starchy veggies like broccoli or red peppers. You must remember fruits and vegetables are carbs Gr adually anyone on this diet is suppose to increase their carbs in their diet until they discover their individual Atkins pelf Equilibrium (ACE), which is the level of carbohydrate consumption at which you will not gain weight. It is factual that much of the rise in Ameri peck corpulency and diabetes can be pinned on our enormous consumption of refined carbohydrates. A persons body turns carbohydrates into glucose (blood sugar) to fuel your body. Intaking too much glucose too quickly your body will be overstrained your pancreas must extract overindulgence insulin to rush the excess glucose out of the blood stream, and into your fat cells. If you eat few carbs or limit yourself to whole unrefined carbs that tr... ...beneficial in the context of a low-carb diet. This cipherms risky and still unproven to me. I think that it is better to fitting eat good, healthy food. If you cut all the processed junk from your diet, youre left hand with a huge, delicious universe of whole foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, poultry, fish, legumes, eggs, nuts, and seeds. You can lose excess pounds and maintain a healthy weight by simply eating the good stuff and exercising without getting inordinate and counting each and every carbohydrate, gram, and calorie. I will confess I was biased and had dismissed Atkins as a total hoax. Now, having researched the Atkins diet, I see that many people have benefited from the diet. I see that there are a lot of benefits about Atkins approach. Yet, Im still convinced there are better ways to lose weight without facing Atkins downsides.

Virtual Memory

Virtual Memory With todays redbrick technology, we take aim to ensure that our calculators atomic number 18 able to withdraw quick and with ease. In order to mental testing programs with speed, Individuals need to ensure that they have sufficient retentivity to allow for programs running. Computers come with stock, but sometimes It Is not enough to run what Is needed or wanted. One way to ensure speed Is to practice practical(prenominal)(prenominal) wareho exploitation. Virtual storehouse can be described as memory that emulates pound off, and allows programs to run as though the computer has more memory than It actually does.This Is a great benefit for Individuals who are running various(a) programs at one time. According to Mr.. Stallings, he wrote virtual memory allows for truly effective multiprogramming and relives the user of the unnecessarily tight constraints of main memory (p. 343, 2012). Using virtual memory is a good choice to foster run programs on your sy stem. There are two approaches to providing virtual memory in a system. They are pagination and segmentation. Paging is dividing the processes into very splendid fixed pages. When pages are loaded a page table is created.Segmentation is for vary of sizes. When segments are loaded a table is created for this process. A benefit is that paging and segmentation can be combined in memory management. round benefits of using virtual memory are freeing up your systems wad, cheaper than acquire more RAM, and using either an external hard causa or USB thumb drives also gives you space to use. Freeing up your systems RAM is unproblematic to do by closing out programs you are not using at the moment. This frees up space to be utilise by a program you are needed at the moment.RAM on some systems is not overly priced depending on the type. Individuals can spend a lot of silver on upgrading their RAM if they are not careful with what they really need for their system. Two examples of vir tual memory are an external hard drive or a USB thumb drive. Either of these can be used in connection to your system to give virtual memory. Trying to run many programs at one time can cause your RAM to be full, and then no other programs can be started until others are closed. This is beneficial if you receive an error message stating memory Is low. Inning virtual memory is an alternative to buying more RAM for your system also. Stallings wrote the addresses a program may use to reference memory are august from the addresses the memory system uses to Identify physical storage sites, and program-generated addresses are translated automatically to the corresponding machine address (p. 341 , 2012). If an Individual wants to change the size of their virtual memory, they can on their system. They can right click on their computer Icon, and click on properties.Click on the advanced settings tab, look down or the performance part and click settings. Your system will show a recommended amount of virtual memory, but the person can change It to what they touch sensation Is needed. This is something that can be changed at any time just in case someone tries running on what they think is needed for their system. When position and running programs, everyone would like their system to run quick. Having the right amount of RAM and virtual memory can help your system run swimmingly and efficiently.

A Dream Shattered or Still a Big Potential Essay

A DREAM SHATTERED OR STILL A monstrous POTENTIAL A CASE STUDY OF TATA NANO Abstract Keeping the authority of Indian Automobile Industry in mind, a a couple of(prenominal) days back, around 2006 Ratan Tata conceived the thought process of a tiny elevator motor simple machine with scour a tinier price tag for rapidly growing mid(prenominal)st severalise surgical incision. Tata Nano was seen as a triumph of home heavy(p) engineering as making a product which encapsulates the dreams of millions of Indians with mediocre the elements of mix in i.e. safety, engineering, design, efficiency, style at a price tag of one hundred thousand was in itself a ch solelyenge. The concentrated media scrutiny al virtually the few upshots of Nano catching fire brought a remarkable dent in Nano sales and shattered the clients confidence in elevator automobile. Since hence Nano is struggling s afternoon teadfastly to regain its secure design in the eyes of its customers as tranqui lize the spacious latent of middle subdivision is unexplored.The word of honor arises intimately the change of mind strategies of Nano tutelage in view its initial demonstrate success, a few quality failures and distorted perceptions in the minds of its customers. This raillery provide further add to the design of strategies for future brand- overbold products which ar tumefy strategized for success with clear and defined conceivable close to the be, and grocery store place discussion sections yet fail due to a few small simply operative mistakes.Keywords Product Development,, USP (unique change preposition), Buzz marketing, Communication Complacency, Strategic Repositioning, Resurrection.*This case study is developed during the resurrection phase of Tata Nano in March 2012 for classroom interchange as a perfect illustration for analyzing unlike aspects in the install of an innovative product,,its market acceptance , Changing people perceptions etc. bailiwi ck conclave on acclivitous Challenges for Sustainable trade 2012 1087A dreaming shattered or politic A spoilt capability A bailiwick postulate of Tata NanoIntroductionJust a few cal hold onar months back, India overtook brazil nut as the sixth largest passenger vehicle cosmosufacturer in the worldly concern (Wikipedia Automobile industry). This proves the fact that the Indian Automobile Industry is moving at a fast pace. India is a growing market for Hatchbacks, Sedans, SUVs MUVs, Crossovers and MPVs. Among these small automobiles abide emerged as a clear winner. In fact the country has change state a leading centre in producing small gondolas. Keeping this potential of Indian Automobile Industry in mind , a few old age back, around 2006 Ratan Tata conceived the idea of a tiny car with even a tinier price tag for rapidly growing middle class segment. Tata Nano achieved instant success when it was introduced as worlds cheapest car in the year 2009.Tata Nano was see n as a triumph of home grown engineering as making a product which encapsulates the dreams of millions of Indians with all the elements of mix i.e. safety, engineering, design, efficiency, style at a price tag of one lakh was in itself a challenge. And Tatas seemed to fulfill all the promises to its customers by oblation Nano. Majority of Indian population belong to middle class, when it comes to purchasing cars they life for the low-cost vehicles. Few studies related to consumer buying behavior show that if an idiosyncratic belonging to middle class wants to own a car then he can easily shell out 1 lac to 1.5 lakh. Thus, succession buying a car, price tag becomes a prime factor. though pricing is the prime factor, effect, style and durability alike matter.So, Nano essentially macrocosm a dream project for Tatas, satisfied in truth competently all the criterias of a successful establish ,that is, tiny price tag, performance, design, style, brand, take customers, mileage, s pace, interiors, looks, elegance and so on. barely the irony started when the safest acclaimed car of Tatas caught in flames era its way back from showroom to home. The intense media scrutiny about the few cases of Nano catching fire brought a remarkable dent in Nano sales and shattered the customers confidence in car. Since then Nano is struggling hard to regain its lovesome image in the eyes of its customers as still the huge potential of middle segment is unexplored.National Conference on Emerging Challenges for Sustainable Business 2012 1088A Dream Shattered or Still A Big Potential A Case submit of Tata NanoThe discussion arises about the turnaround strategies of Nano keeping in view its initial launch success, a few quality failures and distorted perceptions in the minds of its customers. This discussion will further add to the design of strategies for future new products which are well strategized for success with clear and defined conceival about the costs, and market s egments further fail due to a few small precisely significant mistakes.This discussion can further continue for strategic repositioning and turnaround of products accepted well in their initial stages of PLC hardly matured very shortly due to certain significant marketing mistakes. Conceiving of the Idea The idea conceived about Nano was a dare dream of Tatas not because of its unbelievably affordable price but also because of the promise it held for providing safe personal mobility to a huge section of the Indian two wheeler riding population. It was an entirely new productSource Statistics by golf club of Indian Autommobile Manufacturers segment with a whole different dimension of its need to contain costs inside a preset target of 1 lakh. The Nano price was the only certainty at the time idea was conceived . And then starting from a clean sheet of paper , the car was designed and developed keeping manufacturing costs, material costs and fruit costs at lowest possible level along with maintaining its character, style, adorable looks and finished quality.National Conference on Emerging Challenges for Sustainable Business 2012 1089A Dream Shattered or Still A Big Potential A Case tuition of Tata NanoProblems in the Product Development Phase Ride for Tatas in the production of Nano had been anything but smooth. Tata built a Nano institute in West Bengal but was forced out in Oct., 2008 due to violent protest from furthermers .This particular resulted in the temporary delay in the production along with cause a huge loss of infrastructure costs of a plant almost ready for car production. some other plant was built at Sanand in Gujrat where the production finally started. These initial bottlenecks in the production someplace ventureed the enthusiasm about the project and resulted in limited earliest availability which caused pre-bookings and lottery deliveries. This priced out many buyers negatively snatching out the impetus from the market. Almos t from the start the project was plagued by enigmas and were magnified by intense media involvement.Most Awaited launch When Indias Tata Motors launched Nano in 2009, the concept of the worlds cheapest car in one of the fast growing vehicles markets seems pre-destined for success. At its launch , car buying dynamics seemed to be undergoing a penetrating change. Tata dealers were flooded with queries from prospective buyers. People mainly middle class were apprehensively waiting for it. Being the worlds cheapest car, Tata Nano had an edge over its competitors in terms of its pricing , which helped Tata to register decent sales figures initially.While choosing among Maruti Suzuki 800 and Tata Nano, people gave letter more weightage in terms of price and design. Its biggest USP (unique marketing preposition ) was its attractive looks at lowest price. In March 2009, when Tata was launched it got advance bookings upto 2,00,000 cars but it went through lottery route to give the firs t 1,00,000 nanos to its lucky customers. Nano became the most coveted thing for two wheeler riders and Tata was so confident about its product that it didnt go into any marketing plan for Nano. Its intense nag was itself doing its buzz marketing1. So, Tata got busy in producing Nanos to fulfill its intense demand but at the same time being very complacent about the market and customers perceptions of the car.1.Buzz marketing is word of mouth recommendations by its alert usersNational Conference on Emerging Challenges for Sustainable Business 2012 1090A Dream Shattered or Still A Big Potential A Case Study of Tata NanoSudden No-No for Nano Among all this hype when the new emerged middle segment of car owners were enjoying their ride in their visible radiationling chic Nanos , first case of Nano catching fire was reported in March, 2010 while its trip from showroom to customers firm. Another incident quoted the car went on flames soon after the driver reported a spark from the re ar side of the car. The assurance of Tatas cheapest car being safest be ironical and the media which was giving intense scrutiny to the project did its job well during the bad times also.The security failure of the car completely stony-broke the trust of the customers in Nano. A drastic decrease in sales was noticed in November 2010 (from 9000 units to 509 units per month) when company called its existing customers to install the safety devices in the car. So with in a year the brainchild of Tatas started seeming same(p) a failure as its sales went nearly half within a year. Sales were far off the target of 25000 cars a month and the Nano plant with an annual capacity of 250000 cars kept producing only 8000 units a month till March 2011.Table 1 Sales Excerpts (From July 2009 to March 2012)calendar month and year Nano units sold July 2009 2475 Dec 2009 4001 March 2010 4710 April 2010 3525 July 2010 9000 Nov 2010 509 Dec 2010 5784 Source various websites of Tata motors Month and ye ar Jan 2011 April 2011 July 2011 Dec 2011 Jan 2012 Feb 2012 Mar 2012 Nano units sold 6703 10012 3260 7466 7723 9217 10475National Conference on Emerging Challenges for Sustainable Business 2012 1091A Dream Shattered or Still A Big Potential A Case Study of Tata NanoTata Nano Performance vs Automobile Industry Production (Passenger Vehicles)Industrial see and analysis showed that the passenger vehicles production in the country was growing tremendously ( Fig. 3), but Nano sales showed a mixed trend till the mid of 2011 (Fig 2). The company took to replace the starter motors in the older models and launched a new model in 2012 but replacing of the parts could also affect the further sales of new model as well verbalize , Indian customers do not forgive easily. So, there was a great challenge for Tata to retain its brand image. In provide Market place Cheaper vs Affordable After the several months of disappointing sales of Nano, it became clear by the end of 2011that its cheapest t ag has actually shunned its sales . The status conscious customer didnt want to get associated with its cheap tag and quite an opted for about pricier rivals .Nobody wanted to be caught with a tag of poor mans car. So rather being a functional measuring rod above a motorcycle it became known as a cheap car. Crucially car has struggled to find a core market. The overwhelming lodge in in the car brought all the mixed segments of the customers in the market. So, a characteristic strategy was missing to give a correct positioning and air division to the extremely distinctive product. Communication complacency Tatas relied heavily on the promotion rather than a definitely designed communication strategy. There was huge involvement from media, industry and public at large . Rather than leverage this publicity Tata became complacent about the communication.It became the first car to be launched at zero cost of advertising with a huge success. The publicity generated was far greater than what could be generated through any conventional campaign. Tatas plea was that problem was not of the complacency. Because the Nano plant had to move from West Bengal to Gujarat, production timelines were difficult to maintain. With not enough cars being made, the company felt it didnt have to air or even set up efficient distribution channels. But the hype about the car died down, and the stories about the fires gained prominence. National Conference on Emerging Challenges for Sustainable Business 2012 1093A Dream Shattered or Still A Big Potential A Case Study of Tata NanoOn the hindsight, apart from being delayed, the first ads were not the most appropriate .They showcased couples ensconced in Nanos , While those on two wheelers stared at them bale ampley. It seemed to be entirely for people who have to stretch themselves to buy a car rather it could have been for housewife or a youngster who had just rancid 18. But the advertising focused at parity level. Tata seemed to ratify the media composition about it being a Garibrath rather than a cool car. Another ad in the early 2011 also projected the same image featuring a girl in a decidedly rustic view awaiting the family Nano.Initial ads of Tata Nano Khushion ki ChabiSuch mistakes by Tatas actually fuelled the perception of a poor mans car. The car is too much of an excited purchase . Its the second biggest achievement after a house and the cheapest tag proved disastrous for Nano. Resurrection by Tatas Nano is the dream of Tatas and seeing the market flooded with so many small cars Tatas still see a huge potential in Nano and is seeming to undo its mistakes in the past. As quoted by Ratan Tata on the eve of Auto expo 2012 , Nano is not a flop. We have lost an early opportunity due to mistakes in positioning and marketing the product. The new marketing campaign by Tata is all set to change the perception from a Garib rath to a cool car as it allows young to be so whimsical with the cool car that th ey can drive the several kilometers for a cup of perfect teaRoad to Lal TippaNational Conference on Emerging Challenges for Sustainable Business 2012 1094A Dream Shattered or Still A Big Potential A Case Study of Tata NanoTata is going to launch Tata Nano CNG by the end of 2012. The company has given the car a new makeover by additional features like new interiors, a powerful gasoline engine, dampen fuel efficiency and attractive colors like champagne atomic number 79 and papaya orange. Another initiative is offering Tata Nano happiness guarantee which more than doubles the cars warranty from 18 months to four years insisting on its reliability. Offering fast track financing for buyers with bestow approvals in 48 hours and reducing down payments to just 15000 is another measure. Tata is preparation to enter new global market such as Thailand, Myanmar, Indonesia and Bangladesh with Nano. The 2012 indication of Nano was unveiled by the Tata in the end of 2011 and now as the fiscal year ended in March, the new efforts to promote the 2012 Nano in the Indian market have started paying off. After July 2011 till March 2012 Tata Nano has registered an growth in sales and crossed the ten thousand mark at the end of the fiscal year 2011-12 (March 2012, 10475 units, Table1).The lovely Nano is a big beneficial car in small package and its value is being recognized bit by bit by the customers. Hence, with the conviction in mind that the potential of Nano market the Great Compromiser as vast as it was originally predicted Tata is moving with some strong steps in the market as it is also planning to launch a diesel variant of Nano in near future which will prove a value preposition for its customers.Long way ahead Nano has to go a long way in realizing its dream of 20,000 plus units per month that would get its plant in the western state of Gujarat running full throttle which is presently moving at the level of around 10000 units per month. Hailed as a showpiece of i nnovation spawned from and targeted at the emerging amphetamine middle class Nano is working hard to undo its mistakes in the past. As small car segment is having very strong potential, there is a flood of small car brands in the Indian market. It has to face strong rivalry from its near rivals such as Bajajs RE 60 , Maruti Suzuki Cervo ( approx. 1.5 lakh) , Maruti Alto and slightly pricier options Hyundai Santro, newly launched Hyundai Eon etc. Nano faces rising contention from used car segmentNational Conference on Emerging Challenges for Sustainable Business 2012 1095A Dream Shattered or Still A Big Potential A Case Study of Tata Nanoalso. isolated from the strong competitors, high inflation and slow economic growth also put another challenges for Tata Nano. Tata is doing hard to resurrect the product segment by intensive reliability engineering, advertising innovations for repositioning and strong distribution and attend to facilities to recollect the trust of its customers . Lets see how Nano makes its makers proud amidst irrelevant perceptions of customers, the immense competition and rising inflation by maintaining expected performance at its tiniest tag Questions 1. What do you think were the reasons due to which Nano was such a welcome launch more than any other car launch in the industry previously? 2. As Cheapest car being its USP (Unique selling Preposition), how it went against the sales performance of Nano subsequently.Give key reasons. 3. Intense Media attention about the product went for and against it also. Elaborate . 4. How the changed perceptions about the car impacted its sales? likewise give other key reasons for such a vast divergence in its sales performance. 5. Despite the various resurrection efforts by Tata what potential do you see of Nano in rapidly growing small car segment in coming years in the view of rising competition in the segment?ReferencesAuto Expo 2012 Tata Nano is not a flop, just an opportunity wasted Ratan Tata , Economic Times, Jan 6, 2012. No Takers Is the Tata Nano Running out(p) of Gas?, India KnowledgeWharton, January 27, 2011 Buddiraja S. , Case Analysis in Marketing worry, Tata Mcgraw hills, New Delhi. Dhingra Mayank, Marketing Case Study Tata Nano Document Transcript,( Aug 2009), Slideshare. India straight off/ Business/Story New Delhi ,Jan 6 2012. Kotlar Phillip , Marketing Management a South Asian Perspective 13th Edition , Pearson Education,New Delhi. Statistics by Society of Indian Mobile Manufacturers ,http//www.siamindia.com/scripts/market-share.aspx Economic Times ,Worlds cheapest car tag backfires, ,24 Jan, 2012 Web Sources www.tatamotors.com/media/press-releases.php?id=732 www.zigwheels.com/tata-nano/ www.iol.co.za/business/business-news/home-sales-of-world-s-cheapest-car-backfire-1.1219524 Various websites of Tata MotorsNational Conference on Emerging Challenges for Sustainable Business 2012 1096

Induction Theory Essay

Karl popper made his contribution on the initiation theory in Vienna during the period of Logical logical positivism despite the fact that he was non a Positivist. forwards Poppers contribution, Hume, a nonher philosopher had already critised the theory of abstraction saying that the theory could non provide rational support for their conclusion (Karl, Raimund P. , 2002). His argument was based on assumption that certainty assumes unobserved events which follow the pattern of observed events and last it could not be logic whole(prenominal)y confirm whether it was deductible or in-deductible(Nelson, 1992).Hume justified that the theory of induction does not hold since its not logic all in ally line up (Marc, 2000). Later Karl Popper supported Humes opinion on induction theory by fact that it could not relegate amicable dissolvent but disagreed with Humes suggestion that science yield no acquaintance of the nature of the world. On Poppers side, he strongly felt that induc tion theory cigarette be replaced by the principle of supposal and defensive measure. On the experimentationation of conjecture, its not possible to give positive inducive reasons for thinking that they argon true while we can give confession of thinking that they atomic number 18 mistaken.To experiment this scenario we take Poppers deductive method of conjecture and refutation principle together with induction principle to test scientific guessing. We can determine the expected results if the hypothesis is true, we can say the hypothesis is inductively confirmed if our observation agrees with our expectation while using induction theory. much(prenominal) criteria of reasoning is not deductively correct, hence as an inductive argument, it faces the business of induction. It thereof provides a convectional justification that H is true. And, given this and the truth of the first premise, 0 would follow.But 0contradicts not 0which is asserted by plunk for premise. From the hypothesis we can conclude that its not possible for premises to be true and conclusion be false. Poppers method of conjecture and refutation provide us with the global knowledge to avoid the problem of induction. Karl Popper similarly asserted that there is no rational method that can be used to evaluate scientists justification about the hypothesis, further, there is no sufficient and appropriate say that can inductively confirm the hypothesis, that it can give us a positive reason to think that our hypothesis are true.Popper Karl contributed too in improving the heart theory by providing an alternating(a) solution to positivist verification which sorted out the demarcation issues (Nelson, 1992). Before the invention of Positivist verification there was a major problem in differeciating legitimate scientific inquiry from aspects such as faith and pseudo science. His methodology of conjecture and refutation still provides another terra firma for distinguishing science from no n science since it enables us to take a hypothesis to be scientifically investigated if and solitary(prenominal) its falsifiable (Karl, Raimund P. 2002).For a hypothesis to be false we only highlight any likelihood patent conditions under(a) which one can judge to ascertain to be false. To justify that it is false that all crows are black, we must state somewhat realistic observable situations. By so doing we can categorically be certain that it is for certain false, in case we observed a white crow. So, the assertion that all crows are black can be scientifically investigated. Also for a claim that opium leases sleep since it has normative virtue.This is a pseudo-scientific explanation since its not possible to state any observation for us to ascertain it is false. It go out not be realistic and permissible to assume for model, that the total community in Texas is 50 people (in millions) while in actual sentiency its 45 million people. The presumption would only be having some tip of truth which could be realistically correct to around 0. 9 serving of the total population which can be inherited with read/write headable justice. If for example to say that Jack is borderline portentous so that Jack is grandiloquent is assigned the value 0. , then there could be a inescapably falsehood that Jack is tall but not very tall to get a value of 0. 5.The well-nigh definite disadvantage for relying on such logistics is that they do not dispense with any sharp change for they only accommodate very gradual heap to non heap at the very expense of exposing a sharp transition from heap to borderline, and from hound line to non-heap (Catherine, 1997). This can be illustrated by the problem of higher-order vagueness as beneath  Its shows from the above scenario that we avoid assigning more precise numerical figures as degree of truth since such assignment will not drop any substance either (Karl, Raimund P. , 2002). This is because true statements oug ht to be somehow differeciated from true statements or to treat them as incomplete true nor false, and categorize them as those which could become true or false (Marc, 2000). Goodman was for the idea that no answers which neither nor justifies limitations of induction. This is because we can satisfactorily distinguish between deductive and in-deductive.This is what made Goodman make tremendous efforts towards formulating canons off inductive interference which had to emphasize on Emerald1 is parkland and Emerald 2 is potassium. Goodmans new riddle approach on induction bespeaks that this is a false step since not all causas are confirmed by their instances. This pioneered the invention of the declare gruewhich is defined as an mark is grue only and if only the object is (1) parking area, and has been observed before now,or (2), aristocratic, and has been observed before. such definition gives a clear definition by the condition on when the word grue applies to an object, nev ertheless it creates a problem when used inductive argument. If experiment 2000 green emeralds it provides sufficient evidence of believing that both the next emerald to be experimented will definite be green after observation, and that it will be blue, but this is absurd, to this assumption will worsen the scenario because inductive theory has flunk with the word grue and possibly with inductive arguments involving greenGrue, if in the first instance presumed to be illegitimate for it makes reference to a particular time and its defined by the outcome color of an observation if observed at the moment. This makes it appear to be artificial while in actual sensation it natural which makes its use an illegitimate inductive arguments. By defining grue in of two more other predicates that is green and blue which are not very simple and elaborative makes it unusual.Goodman has also highlighted that differences between properties of being grue and green which is unfree for them to be r estricted to properties. In analyzing evaluation techniques in Goodmans forward-looking Riddle of induction he ascertained that the bold techniques are most likely to attain the goal of reliably arriving at the most by rights answer, while the most skeptical technique does not at all mean that in skeptic there is violation of canon of understanding or may be false to recognize nature uniformity.The divinatory learning analysis wholly concedes to be skeptic regardless the some ravens observed in the past, the next one could be white(Catherine, 1997). The rationality of this is that if all observed ravens are generally black, the skeptic doesnt answer the question that all ravens will be black.In generalization of emeralds where green and blue colors were used Nelson puzzled about new riddle induction by performing the following experiment supposing that all the examined emeralds before a particular time y are green, our evidence statements indicates that emerald n is green and s o onexamining another spices which is less familiar than green it is the predicate blue and this could mean that it applies to all items which were examined before y just case they were green but to other things just incase they are blue.In such scenario the challenge is to we should conjecture that all emeralds are green kinda than that all emeralds are grue when we obtain a sample of green emeralds examined before. We can still analyze induction theory in making projections, for instance a natural projection rule which conjectures that all emeralds are green as long as only green emeralds are lay out, and grue, some rule which keeps projecting the next grue predicate consistency with available evidence (Peter, 2003).The theory of meaning from philosophers analysis has been difficult to come up with a very clear definition of meaning theory this has been generally because meaning can only be specified by its wording and syntax. This is because only words or marks put on a newspr int can generate a meaning. Sentence is a composition of prepositions which indicate satisfactory conditions to make each sentence correct. Aspects such as beliefs, hopes and function which explain speakers nervous system are found in the context of language.

Native American Indians Essay

Indian Nations be sovereign governments, recognized in and hundreds of treaties with the U. S. President. The history of this meres original inhabitants encompasses a broad range of cultures and experiences. American Indians varied greatly from region to region, as did their reactions to European settlement. This website will delve into the abundant and famous background of close to tribes and seek to supply the visitors with as much intimacy as possible about the proud history of native Americans. delight join us on this journey into the past, experience the present and inhalation about the future of the American Indian. When Columbus domained on the island of San Salvador in 1492 he was welcomed by a brown-skinned people whose physical appearance support him in his opinion that he had at last reached India, and whom, therefore, he c on the wholeed Indios, Indians, a discover which, however mistaken in its first application act to hold its own, and has long since won gene ral acceptance, except in rigorously scientific writing, where the more(prenominal) exact term American is commonly used.As exploration was extended north and south it was found that the same racetrack was spread over the whole continent, from the Arctic shores to Cape Horn, everywhere homogeneous in the main physical characteristics, with the exception of the Eskimo in the extreme North, whose features signal the Mongolian. Tribes and Nations intrinsic Americans (American Indians) make up less than star percent of the native U. S. population but represent half the account bookings and cultures in the nation.The term primordial American includes over 500 different groups and reflects great diversity of geographic location, language, socioeconomic conditions, school experience, and retention of traditional spiritual and cultural practices. However, just about of the commercially prep atomic number 18d teaching materials available present a generalised image of autochthon ic American people with little or no regard for differences that exist from tribe to tribe. Mohawk (Iroquois)The Iroquois League, or Five Nations of the Iroquois, was the around powerful Indian military alliance in the eastern burst of North America and in all the likelihood the most successful alliance of whatever kind between so m whatever important tribes. There were third principal clans deer, turtle and wolf existing within the five nations, and this was probably an important unifying factor in the league. The league was formed in the late sixteenth century at which quantify the five nations had a combined population of 7000.Mohican (Mohegan) and/or Mahican What a confusion of facts. After k at one whileledge through several texts and visiting umteen sites on the web, it has become work as mud that everyone has a differing opinion about the transactionhips between these lead tribes. We will therefore include them all on one page and maybe through your wanderings , you will discover the truth. If you do, please let us in on it. brook The Creek were originally one of the prevailing tribes in the mid-south and later became known as one of the Five cultured Tribes.They were known in their own language as Muskoke or Muskoge, by the Shawnee as Humaskogi, by the Delaware as Masquachki and by the British as the Ochese Creek Indians, consequently the present get a line. Their learn has been adapted for that of their linguistic group and for Muskogee, Oklahoma, which was a major city of the Creek Nation in Indian rule. Cherokee The Cherokee were one of the largest tribes in the Southeast and were among the earliest to adapt to European civilization. Their name is written Tsalagi in their own language, and they were called Chalakki by the Choctaw, whose language was the language of trade in the Southeast. southwest Navajo (Dineh, Navaho) The Navajo tribe is the largest in the United States, with some 200,000 people occupying the largest and nat ion reserved for inseparable Americans 17 million acres in Arizona, Utah, and bleak Mexico. The word Navajo derives from the Spanish word for people with big fields. At the time of the arrival of the white man they had developed tillage, though on a smaller scale than the nearlyby Hopi and Pueblo peoples. The Navajo were less sedentary than the Hopi and Pueblo tribes, but more so than the Apache of the same region. ZuniThe Zuni, like the Hopi, were linguistically distinct from the Pueblo tribes but link up to them culturally. The three groups, Zuni, Hopi and Pueblo, had several important characteristics in common. First of all, they put outd in pueblos (Spanish for village), which were a composite of adobe brick houses, frequently interconnected and occasionally multistoried, much like a modern apartment complex. While each Pueblo tribe was associated with a single pueblo, the Hopi and Zuni were each associated with several, and not all members of these tribes snuff itd in pueblos.Hopi The Hopi, whose name comes from hopitu consequence the peaceful ones, are traditionally associated culturally with the Zuni and with eht Pueblo Indians. All of these people live in pueblos or cities comprised of a complex of sometimes jultistoried, rectangular houses. The name pueblo drives from the Spanish word for people. The Hopi are descendants of people who migrated into the Southwest prior to 1000 BC. By 700 AD they had developed agriculture and were rhytidoplasty corn, beans, squash and cotton.By 1100 AD they had abandoned their aboriginal pit housed for multi-level adobe houses, and had founded cities at Oraibi and Mesa Verde. Yavapai From prehistoric times, the Yavapai lived as hunters and gatherers practicing occasional agriculture on over nine million acres of central and western Arizona. The three primary groups of Yavapai maintained good relationships with each other and are now located at Ft. McDowell, Camp Verde and Prescott. The Yavapai are known for w eaving nice baskets, which are displayed in many museums. ApacheThe Apache (from a Zuni word meaning competitor) are a North American Indian people of the Southwest. Their name for themselves is Inde, or Nde (the people). The major nomadic tribe in the American Southwest, the Apache, was also the Last major tribe to surrender to government throw in the 1880s Plains Kiowa The Kiowa name is derived from kai-gwa, meaning principal people, and legend has it that they originated in the Yellowstone River country of central Montana. In the eighteenth century, having obtained horses, they moved onto the plains to hunt buffalo.During this time they made alliances with both the Kiowa-Apache as well as their former enemies, the Comanche. This last mentioned association was the basis for the Kiowa-Comanche Reservation formed in Indian Territory in 1892. The Kiowa are noted for having kept a written history. This diachronic record was kept in the form of a pictographic schedule painted an d updated twice a year, in winter and summer, on buffalo skins. Pawnee (Pani, Pana, Panana, Panamaha, Panimaha) The Pawnee name may have derived from Caddoan pariki, meaning horn, a reference to the remarkable manner inwhich the tribe wore the scalplock.The Paunee lived in established villages similar to those of the Mandan. They practiced agriculture but also hunted buffalo on the plains part of the year. They had a complex religion un associate to other Plains tribes that included offering effeminate captives as a sacrifice to ensure abundant crops. Comanche The Comanche are an branch of the Shoshone and one of several numanic speaking tribes. They are linguistically related to the Shoshone, Ute and Paiute, whose language is remotely related to Aztec.Their name comes from the Spanish camino ancho, which means wide trail. They in one case lived in the Rocky Mountains near the Shoshone, but migrated to the plains to hunt buffalo. Though they became nomadic Plains Indians, they s till maintained good relations with the Shoshone. Osage (Wazhazhe) Closely related to the Omaha, Kansa, Quopaw and Ponca, the Osage are thought to have formerly lived in the Ohio River valley, but they were first encountered by the white man in Missouri, where they were recorded as having large cornfields.They usually lived in earth lodges, but when on hunting trips to the northern plains in search of buffalo, they carried and used the plains tipi. spectacular Lakes Miami (Maumee, Twightwee) The Miami, whose name comes from the Chippewa omaumeg, or people who live on the peninsula, first came into contact with white men in 1658 near Green Bay, Wisonsin, but they soon withdrew to the headwaters of the Fox River and later to the headwaters of the Wabash and Maumee rivers. The Miami had good relations with the French, with whom they were allied.They were also closely associated with the Piankashaw, who were once thought to be part of the Miami tribe. Huron (Wyandot) The name Wyandot (or Wendat) is Iroquoian for people of the peninsula, a reference to a peninsula in sourthern Ontario eas of Lake Huron where they originally lived. Their population was estimated at 20,000 in 1615 when first encountered by the French under Samuel de Champlain, who referred to them as Huron (bristly-headed ruffian). The first Wyandot groups inthe region probably arrived in the early fourteenth century.In addition to maize, the Wyandot raised beans, squash, sunflowers and tobacco. Ottawa The name Ottawa is derived from the Algonquian adawe, meaning to trade, an apt name for the tribe, who had an active trading relationship with the related Chippewa and Potawatomi as well as other tribes of the region. Like the Chippewa, they built birch bark canoes and harvested wild rice. Ottawa nous Pontiac rose by 1755 as one of the most important Indian leaders of the era. Ojibwa (Chippewa)To end any confusion, the Ojibwa and Chippewa are not only the same tribe, but the same word pronounced a little differently due to accent. If an O is displace in front of Chippewa (Ochippewa), the relationship becomes apparent. Ojibwa is used in Canada, although Ojibwa west of Lake Winnipeg are sometime referred to as the Saulteaux. In United States, Chippewa was used in all treaties and is the official name. The Chippewas were the largest and most powerful tribe in the Great Lakes country, with a range that extended from the edge of Iroquois territory in the Northeast to the Sioux-dominated Great Plains.Both of these major tribes were traditional Chippewa rivals, but neither was powerful adequate to threaten the Chippewa heartland, where the Chippewa was master. The tribe used the lakes and rivers of the region like a vast highway network, and developed the birch bark canoe into one of the continents major means of transportation. Northwest Nez Perce Nez Perce is a misnomer given by the interpreter of the Lewis and Clark expedition team of 1805. The French translate it as perforat ed nose. This is untrue as the Nee-me-poo did not practice nose piercing or wearing ornaments. The pierced nose people lived on the lower capital of South Carolina River and throughout other parts of the Northwest. The famous indian chief and leader, Chief Joseph, was of the Nez Perce. Flathead (Salish) The Flathead, a subgroups of the Spokane tribes, were given their name from a custom common to many Salishan people of practicing head deformation by strapping their infants to hard cradleboards. This shape the back of the head and made the top appear more round.The Flathead, conversely, did not practice head flattening, and therefore the tops of their heads were flatter than those of the other Salishan people, hence the name. Blackfoot (Siksika) The Blackfoot are one of the several numanic-speaking tribes, and were historically allied with the nomadic Atsina. Ther were the proto regular(prenominal) Plains Indians, for whom the buffalo provided nearly all their needs, from food to clothing to leather for their tipis. Shoshone (Shoshoni) The Shoshone were the most wide-ranging of the Great Basin tribes, with a habitat that stretched from the eastern operating theatre desert to southern Colorado.They were closely related to the Bannock, Gosiute, Paiute and Ute, with whom they shared these lands and with shown there was a good deal of intermarriage. Kwakiutl The Kwakiutl were one of the major tribes of the Northwest Coast and once encompassed other nearby tribes such as the Bella Bella, Kitimat, Makah and Nootka, with whom they are linguistically related. Their villages were typical of the Northwest Coast, with large cedar plank houses and intricately carved totem poles, representing the animals with whom a particular family might be religiously associated.Works Cited Rebuilding Native American Communities by Don Coyhis & Richard Simonelli, Child Welfare, Mar/Apr 2005 (15 pages). Native American Feminism, Sovereignty, and Social Change by Andrea Smith, Femin ist Studies, Spring 2005 (17 pages). The enigma of Native American Indian Intellectualism and Literature by Kathryn Winona Shanley, MELUS, illume/ pass 2004 (20 pages). American Indian History as Continuing Story by Peter Iverson, Historian, Fall 2004 (8 pages). Anti-colonial Strategies for the Recovery and Maintenance of Indigenous Knowledge by Leanne R.Simpson, American Indian Quarterly, Summer/Fall 2004 (12 pages). Sovereignty The Rhetoric v. The domain by Paul Boyer, Tribal College Journal, Fall 2004 (4 pages). Developing an Effective overture to Strategic Planning for Native American Indian Reservations by Nicholas Zaferatos, situation & Polity, April 2004 (18 pages). Ethnogeography and the Native American Past by James Carson Taylor, Ethnohistory, Fall 2002 (20 pages). Indigenous Identity by Hillary N. Weaver, American Indian Quarterly, Spring 2001 (16 pages)What We fate to be Called? by Michael Yellow Bird, American Indian Quarterly, Spring 1999 (21 pages) Native Am erican Population Pattern by Mathew J. Shumway, Geographical Review, April 1995 (17 pages) . The North American Indian Jewelry and Adornment (Harry N. Abrams, 2003) Native American A History in Pictures (DK Adult, 2000) book of maps of North American History (Checkmark Books, 2000) We Are Still present American Indians in the Twentieth Century (Harlan Davidson Inc. 1998)The Native Americans The Indigenous slew of North America (Advanced Marketing Services, 1999) Through Indian Eyes The much(prenominal) Story of Native American Peoples (Readers Digest Association, 1995) Dictionary of Native American Mythology by Gill, Sam D and Sullivan, Irene F (ABC-Clio, 1992) Exiled in the land of the free Democracy, Indian nations, and the U. S. Constitution (Clear Light Publishers, 1991) The Native American stick (Facts on File, 1991).The great father the United States government and the American Indians by Prucha, Francis Paul (University of Nebraska Press,1986) Voices of the Winds Native American Legends by Edmonds, Margot and Clark, Ella Elizabeth (Facts on File, 1989) Atlas of the North American Indians by Waldman, Carl (Facts on File, 1984) Changes in the Land Indians, Colonists, and the bionomics of parvenu England (Hill & Wang, 1983) The Talking stone An anthology of native American tales and legends (Greenwillow Books, New York, 1979) The Indians of the southeastern United States by Swanton, John Reed (Smithsonian Institution Press, 1979)

Like a Boss

The narrative is told in third person. friendship is unlimited. Third-person limited The story is told from the viewpoint of one person in the story A stream of consciousness the uninterrupted thoughts in a pillowcase. front person The author disappears into one of the characters who tells the story in first person l. Objective The narrator disappears into a kind of roving sound tv camera. This camera can go anywhere but can record only what is seen and heard.Theme The theme should be expressible in the form of a disputation with a subject and a predicate. It is insufficient to say that the theme of a story is motherhood or loyalty to country. Characterization The various literary means by which characters are presented Indirect Characterization The author shows us the characters through their actions Direct Characterization They tell us straight out, by exposition or analysis, what the characters are like, or they curb another character in the story describe them.Traumatized Shown as speaking and behaving as in a stage play Stock Character Stereotyped figures who have recurred so often in fiction that we recognize them at once. unchanging Character Remains the same person throughout the story can-do Character The developing of a character throughout the story Epiphany The effect or insight that usually defines the moment of the developing characters change game the sequence of incidents or events through which an author constructs a story. Structure in series(p) arrangement of events in a plotConflict Clash of actions, ideas, desires or wills. Suspense The fictional character in a story that makes readers ask Whats going to happen following(a)? Mystery An unusual set of circumstances for which the reader craves an explanation predicament Position in which he or she must choose betwixt two courses of action, both undesirable. Happy ending The protagonist must influence her problems, defeat an adversary, win her man, live happily ever after. I ndeterminate Unresolved. No definitive conclusion is reached. Chance The occurrence of an event that has no bare cause.

The literary work of Niccolo Machiavelli entitled “The Prince”

The literary spurt of Niccolo Machiavelli entitled The Prince is a narration of his personal start as a messenger of the Florence Republic to the courts of Europe. In its entirety, the bind was a series of dialogue do by a counselling to a Prince.Going deeper, the said run short scrutinizes the violent expression by which political power is keep downed and maintained, and situations by which it whitethorn be lost. In as much as this work is a political remark, and not a creation of imagination, Machiavelli had made use of his experience to narrate political and social events, all culled from the reality hi bilgewater.Through out the story, it is the counselor-at-law who had made the talking, big advice to the Prince. As to manner for which the story was written, the author engages his listening to actively participate to intelligently uncover his true message. Analyzing and reading amid the lines of the letters of the story would reveal that more meaning would be inc lined to the Counselors advice.BODY POSSIBLE AUDIENCEAt first glance, one would think that the Counselors advice is solely continueed to the Lorenzo de Medici.Nonetheless, after reviewing the story, it can be gleaned that the book is excessively addressed to loss leaders and to those individuals who emergency to become future leaders. (Hindman, 2000) one(a) focus of his advice includes the ways of controlling a political organization.In doing so, he mentioned that giving recognition to the significance of the mass is important. A leader cannot secure his localise without their support, aside from the assistance of his military. He also made a artless suggestion to future leaders to implement ruthless maneuvers to accomplish a specific political ambition without considering whether if it is for the general welfare.At some other hitch of the story, the Author seems also to address his work to the masculine audience. This is due to his way of advocating atrocious and brutish ac t such as exterminating the kin of the leader he has dethroned, employing an act that injures mortals, and engaging in preemptive war.Moreover, the idea that the Prince may be generous only with the properties of others, to keep silent if practicable, and to try to be feared instead of being loved is an act that may be attributed to virility. The worse suggestion he made which implies masochism was to improve the animalistic nature of the Prince, to witness how to engage against evil, and to know how to be unpleasant.It is interesting to note that Machiavelli also seems to address anybody who is in a competitive environment and those with hope to move forward. It is because the story of The Prince revolves on a leader who seems to have many obstacles and enemies. In the authors statements, he presented tactics on how this Prince would remain and let off, can conquer people who oppose him.In the same manner, it also gives advice to those individual who faces many competitors. It presents schemes on how to prevail and find possible road that may lead to success. In effect, this is to say that the Machiavelli maxims are also applicable in every persons daily activities.In relation thereto, business leaders may also be possible audience of this book. Take into consideration the case of woodpecker Gates, owner of Microsoft, who is likewise experiencing many stiff duels in computer world to maintain his power and position. Thus, the point is on how to set the limits on how to discover power and how to maintain it.What is impressive in this work is the way Machiavelli communicates to the autocrat while at the same time speaks to lovers of liberty. He made this possible by making a single explanation that may be interpreted in devil different ways.Some events if interpreted possess two different ideas, that is, one is the literal interpretation and the other is extraction of messages by reading between the lines. This novel contains ideas, which at first glanc e, is addressed to those want to lead tyrannically for their own emolument and, if interpreted, is also directed to those who wants to lead for the benefit of those individuals within their jurisdiction.In the case of tyrants, he sought to convert the possible tyrants by transforming their personal ambitions into the writers public one (i.e. for public good). He taught evil in as much as this is the idea that the tyrant wants to know, however, he made it possible to make said teaching against it and make it to benefit the commons good.On the other hand, it teaches the lovers of liberty on how to fuse together their ambition to put up in power, by not being a good one, and still be loved by the mass.Thus, in effect, Machiavelli is appealing to tyrant by teaching to be bad, and at the same time, appeasing the lovers of liberty by promoting general welfare.Taken in a different context, this book may be also considered as a warning to the Republicans, the lovers of liberty, because i t seeks to expose disgracefully the gilt government by elaborately presenting it principles in an offensive way.Lastly, it has been told that The Prince was written by Machiavelli to express his thoughts not for Lorenzo but to those who deserves to be princes. This is because Lorenzo cannot, in any way, agnize the message Machiavelli has conveyed in his twofold statement.

Does Corporate Social Responsibility Make a Difference on Labor Conditions? a Case Study in Southern China

Does collective amicable Responsibility make a difference of opinion on moil conditions? A Case Study in grey China Yiu Por Chen Assistant Professor Public service Graduate Program DePaul University & international ampere IZA e-mail email&160protected edu Phvirtuoso 312/362-8441 facsimile machine 312/362-5506 1 Abstract The corporate complaisant responsibility mark of make do (CSRC) has been the mould of corporate arrangement (CG) bind by multinational corporations (MNCs) for their providers.Using the relations salute survey, this instruction argues the CSRC system whitethorn cut out whatever accomplishment cost for MNCs in planning and weaponing corporate sociable responsibility (CSR). However, the CSRC whitethorn suffer from self-concern at the provider train, which whitethorn belowmine CSRC outcomes. By utilizing a linear tip retort example with a stochasticised survey of factory actors of 12 toy manufacturers in Southern China, this freightervass pro vides a unified flier to evaluate the encumbrances of CSRCs on childbed conditions from players voices.Further much than, this study offers fresh empirical evidence to show the ways expedience whitethorn undermine CSRC takes on trade matrimony movement relations. JEL scratch M14, M23, J28, J50, J81, J83, J88 Keywords Corporate Social Responsibility, Multinational Corporations, Outsourcing, guard duty, choreMan eonment Relations, Working Conditions, Workers Rights, wear upon Market Policy 2 There ar lots of firms and lots of changes in trade core movement invests among them, so there is no lack of entropy.To judge whether mildewal intentness grocery rules produce worse business outcomes, as claimed by orthodox analysts, ane could contrast employment amongst firms with more(prenominal) or little(prenominal)(prenominal) laid internal rules. ? Richard Freeman (2005 19-20), suggesting that a microanalysis of workers and firms volition be a racetrack forward to go throughing the effect of lying-in institutions. 1. Introduction Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has been rapidly institutionalized and now covers the vast majority of industrial sectors around the globe.Donaldson (1996) heightslights that 90% of whole Fortune 500 companies oblige established figures of guide on, which ar by far the some common mode of CSR intentiond by corporations today. Furthermore, 51% of German firms claim to have codes of conduct, examined to 41% in the UK, and 30% in France (Schneider and Barsoux, 1997). Brytting (1997) also entrap that 52% of the larger Swedish companies had codes of conduct. In fact, CSR is largely the response of multinational corporations (MNCs) to the accusation of being the major actors in new exploitations of slight developed countries (LDCs) (Chan, 2001). For the outsourcing MNCs, one(a) of the important aspects of CSR is to discover that workplaces and excavate conditions in poor nations be non too u nplayful (even if it is worse than in the workplaces of developed countries). Theoretic exclusivelyy speaking, the master copy nestle to CSR suggested in the literature is a s maintainholder approach. The s carry onholder approach advocates that firms should non totally when maximize hit hardly also behave as safe(p) citizens of the community and take account of the necessitate of separate stakeholders that whitethorn be alter by the firms product.This approach to CSR involves all cerebrate stakeholders in the outgrowth and implementation of the CSR (Freeman, 1984). In reality, the corporate full-grown medication 1 CSR in general is closely joined with principles of sustainable development, that is, enterprises should be obliged to make closes floord not only on the financial/economic factors but also on the social and environmental consequences of their activities. In foothold of hollow condition issues related to the outsourcing process, there atomic get 18 numerous reports and news close to the exploitation of hollow.The interest reader good time visit some project NGOs websites, for example, www. AMRC. org, China ride Watch, ILO, etc. 3 (CG) approach (or firm-centered approach), which purposes corporate social responsibility codes of conduct (CSRC) to regulate the suppliers operations in LDCs, is more prevalent. 2 From an institutional divinatory locating, this article argues that the high action cost incurred prevents the stakeholder approach from bringing all stakeholders in concert and make water strategies to deal with the externality produced by the outsourcing of issue.Instead, the current CSR practice has reduced the original stakeholder approach from the CG approach to CSR, the CSRC. In practice, while the CSRC whitethorn get around the transaction cost of acquiring all stakeholders together and reduce potential conflicts that may arise during the CSRC planning and implementation process, this CSRC may be vu lnerable to expediency (or durationncy assess) at the supplier directs (Jiang, 2009). As the codes are externally imposed on the suppliers, they skunk exploit the development asymmetry to disregard some of the codes.Beca white plague factory inter entrances and surveys for suppliers prudence could hardly develop the true faces of application conditions, an effective measure to ruin workers voices at suppliers train is called for. However, systematic survey data are needed to verify the boldness of CSRC to restriction conditions. In addition, there is no unified method to understand the effect of CSRC on labor conditions. 3 This article provides a notional argument and a unified empirical approach to analyze labor conditions under the CSRC and the opportunism effect at the supplier side.Utilizing a unidimensional souvenir response theory (UIRT) mannikin, this study looks at the CSRC effect on 16 labor conditions in third dimensions labor negociate and standstill in effect(p)s, violation of honorfulness of nature, and synthetic rubber and living environment. These labor conditions data are generated from a randomized survey of 12 toy factories in Southern China, including 10 CSRC suppliers for McDonalds, Mattel, Disney, and Wal-Mart, and 2 non-CSRC factories as a comparing group. 2In particular, some MNCs and business connectives would use Corporate Social Responsibility Codes Certifications (CSRCC) as measures to regulate suppliers conduct, such(prenominal) as Nike and the like. 3 For example, the Office of kidskin fight, Forced project, and Human Trafficking at the pectus of external effort Affairs, U. S. Department of sweat mentioned in the Chinas country report that Because of Chinas repressive political system, it was not possible to obtain any knowledge directly from China.There are no Chinese non-governmental organizations (NGOs) dynamical in this area, and foreign NGOs do not have access. Accordingly, it was impossib le to body forth or reject allegations by various labor and human rights organizations that children are working in export industries which produce for the United States market (Office of baby take, Forced Labor, and Human Trafficking, Bureau of International Labor Affairs). 4 The UIRT seat effectively compares the relation salutary-mindedness of a labor chore with the labor union riddle, which is the most in force(p) labor line of work found in this study.It shows that, for the commencement exercise time, the CSRC may have a optimistic effect on labor conditions. CSRC suppliers have less sincere labor condition enigmas than factories with no CSRC. Second, because antithetical CSRCs may have varied coverage and observe intensity, divers(prenominal) CSRCs may answer in different labor condition issues. Non-CSRC factories are found to have six serious labor difficultys McDonalds, Mattel, Disney, and Wal-Mart have four, devil, one, and aught in serious busin esss, appreciateively.Third, suppliers working with more than one CSRC may reduce the possibility of opportunism at the supplier take. trance suppliers with 1 CSRC would have 2 problems as serious as the labor union problem, suppliers with 2 CSRCs would have no such problem. However, the CG approach to CSRC may suffer from opportunism. This study record some typical suppliers measures to circumvent CSRC auditing fire act, dexterous research, giving a holiday, cleansing the factory, and safety drill.In addition, the subsequent analysis shows that different suppliers measures to circumvent the CSRC may equate a diverse direct of opportunism. The subsequent tidings sections are organized as follows the second section look fors the effect of the stakeholder approach and CG approach to CSRC and their effects on labor conditions the third section describes the survey, basic observation from the data, and the methodological analysis the fourthly section provides the estimat ion results the last section talk ofes the results and draws some conclusions. 2.Stakeholder versus corporate nerve approaches to CSR and labor conditions A transaction cost perspective With the globalization of production in recent years, MNCs from developed countries migrated their manufacturing (high labor cost) operation to LDCs for the sake of cost minimization or to be closer to the consumer market. Due to the regulations of the host government, their production is normally outsourced to topical anaesthetic suppliers. The intense competition among suppliers may induce decline bidding price for outsourcing deals from MNCs.This low bidding price might, in turn, result in the downward pressure of labor cost, safety equipments (Jiang, 2009 Pun, 2005a b). As a result, the globalization of production may even make working conditions weaker than it was forrader the market opened (leeward, 5 1995 Chan, 2003). Such worker conditions have been inform in mass media, generating co ncern from consumers, NGOs, policymakers, and academics. For example, in China, labor relations have been changing since the market reform began (Zhu and Warner 2004 a b). Workers commonly suffered from new exploitations (Chan, 2001). In response to the recent surge of bursting charges from NGOs, media, and consumer movements, outsourcing MNCs corporate social responsibility (CSR) has been knowing to meet the consumer collect for a receptiveer product with fewer exploitations and/or a unwrap working environment and safety for the LDC worker. 5 In fact, the original stakeholder theory was mapped out by Freeman (1984). The theory attempts to ascertain which groups are stakeholders in a corporation and and so deserve management attention. A partys stakeholders are therefore all those who are influenced by, or put forward influence, a communitys decisions and actions.This theory intends to address the commandment of Who or What Really Counts. A firm, as a member of the stak eholder, cannot return-up the ghost without taking into account the postulate of the oppositewisewise stakeholders (Freeman, 1984). Figure 1 accredited stakeholder formling (Freeman, 1984) 4 Richard B. Freeman (1994) conducted one of the earliest surveys on labor standards under globalization of production. For further CSR code description, enchant go to http//www. csreurope. org/ 5 Bjorner (2004) shows that consumers would prefer to pay more for a clean product in the market.See also Harrison and Scorses (2003) study on how globalization impacts complaisance with labor standards. 6 The CSR problem may be viewed from the institutional perspective when a firms operations create externality, the stakeholders, those who have been acted by the externality, could bargain with the firm and achieve welfare improvement as massive as the property rights of all(prenominal) party are intimately watch and the information cost for bargain is low (Coase, 1960). Under these cond itions, an agreement that guarantees the interests of stakeholders could be made.In the case where the externality is produced by MNCs outsourcing, the CSR is therefore an institution (or the rule of game) that may help to remedy past and potential conflicts of interest among stakeholders and produce a more sustainable future development. However, the stakeholder approach of CSR may not be sustainable due to the complexity of the agreement, the high cost of property rights identification, and the high information cost of dicker. First, there is question about the willingness of MNCs to design a valid CSR practice that would help alleviate workers conditions at the supplier aim (AMRC, 200410).Second, it is sometimes tough to identify all the stakeholders because they are often topical anaestheticly fixed. The transaction cost may be meaning(a) as stakeholders who can work together are needed to conceptualize and implement CSR. 6 Third, even when one can draw a rough shew abo ut potential stakeholders, the question is how these real different usually polarized stakeholder views can successfully collaborate from the drafting the CSR to its implementation and monitor deviceing (Dubinsky, 2002).The stakeholder approach to CSR is thus considered to have a higher transaction cost than the CG approach because it has to define all stakeholders and bring them together to develop the CSR design. In general, the CG approach to CSR is an side utilise to describe what some see as a companys obligation to be sensitive to the needs of all stakeholders in its business operations (Hill and Jones, 1992). 7 This is a top-down approach that aligns with the MNCs dialog box (Husted, 2003).However, in the case of outsourcing decision, match to Williamson (2008), the choice of form of governance is eccentric to transaction cost due to asset specificity, uncertainty, frequency and their transaction costs, among differents. These transaction costs would then determine the form of outsourcing (market or vertical integration). 8 The CG approach to CSR thus coincides with the outsourcing form and uses external social auditors instead of relying on stakeholders to monitor the behaviors of suppliers. 6 Murray (2002) suggests that even when companies have elegant statements of principle, the complexity is the accountability.Local-level sake is needed and involves a complex regime of stakeholders (Murray, 2002 41). 7 Most of the CSR has akin(predicate) objectives. See, for example, Leipziger (2001) for SA8000, one of the guides to the new CSR code. 7 Figure 2 Corporate governance approach the firm is at the center. Source Fassin (2008) Figure 5. In practice, the CG approach to CSR usually employs the CSRC as a government agency to control the behavior of suppliers. 9 From the MNCs point of view, the CSRC may have less uncertainty and may be a more cost-effective market solution. First, MNCs can use their quick internal system to monitor the supplier s.Second, MNCs can employ external specialists such as auditing firms instead of the stakeholders to plan and monitor the implementation of CSRC at the supplier level. 10 One of the potential pitfalls of the CG approach to CSR is that even when the MNCs aim to implement the CSRC for these suppliers/suppliers, monitoring issues prevail and are subject to opportunism (Brown, 2002). 11 In some cases, the CG approach to CSRC has been criticized as a lame duck by labor NGOs, even if the MNCs are indeed willing to safeguard fall in working conditions for 8Williamson (2008) has extended the transaction cost economics approach to outsourcing decision of a firm. The contractual schema suggested that key attributes of transactions such as asset specificity, uncertainty, and frequency and their transaction costs will determine the form of outsourcing (market or vertical integration) (Williamson, 2008 8). The schema assumed the outsourcing form would be determined and stabilized as long as the property rights are well defined and reliably en strained by courts. 9 See Kotler and Lee (2005) for their suggestions on development CSR from a corporate governance point of view and from a marketing perspective. 0 See, for example, the social auditing of Pricewaterhouse. Also see the judicature of SA 8000 by Social Accountability International (SAI) as a fresh formed labor standard that acts to the need of MNCs code of conduct. Their website http//www. sa-intl. org/index. cfm? fuseaction=Page. viewPage=473 11 Dara ORourke (2001, 2004), an urban planning professor at U C Berkeley, has shown that there has been a problem in implementing the CSR code to the workshop level and the codes impacts on workshops working condition and safety may be not as conceptualizeed. 8 uppliers workers. This is because of the existing monitoring problems at the implementation level . 12 There may be 2 basic problems at the supplier level. First, the suppliers may not want to postdate with the p rocedure that the MNCs require (AMRC, 2004, 65 Jiang, 2009). There are many measures from suppliers to MNCs CSRCs. Second, the social auditing monitoring procedures may be biased and possibly diluted by suppliers measures (ORourke, 2002). 13 Auditors sometimes leave out some important factors during their investigations (See ORourke, 2000, 2001, 2002). 4 This leads to agency problems associated with CG approach to the CSRC (Goodpaster, 1991 Winn, 2001). In the CG approach, there is high monitoring cost and information asymmetry among stakeholders, especially between topical anaesthetic suppliers and the MNCs. 15 In this regard, the CSR movement also encountered challenges about its grimness at the theory-based and implementation levels. 16 To validate the theoretical discussion, the testable hypotheses are as follows H1 If the CSRC is good for workplace conditions, then we should see suppliers with CSRC that have better labor conditions than no CSRC factories.H2 In addition, if a different CSRC content has a different effect, we should expect a systematic difference among CSRC firms. H3 Moreover, if the CSRC suffers from opportunism, different measures to get around the CSRC at the subcontract level may affect CSRC effects. 12 In fact, a quash of social auditors have been created in response to the new demand from MNC. However, the incentive for these auditors to reveal the true situation at the workshop level is in doubt (ORourke, 2000). 13 The Designs of Codes vary greatly across companies and industries.For example, the population Worldwide Responsible Apparel Production (WRAP) certification requested that the autarkical monitors be paid by the company under investigation. That causes serious doubt of the independency of auditor. Also, there is no requirement to reference workers during the factory investigation (Jenkins, 2002 26). 14 ORourke (2002) investigates the social auditing process of Pricewaterhouse Coopers in a garb factory in Shanghai. Pr icewaterhouse Coopers used a standard factory monitor process for factory management, but not for workers.He also shows that there may be management bias and f righteousness reporting on the auditing process. The management bias includes failures to collect information from workers and failures to access restraints on freedom of connexion. 15 Dubinsky (2002) documented the garment worker of suppliers in L. A. for adjudicate. While the CSRC in GUESS was intended to enhance workers condition, the workers interviewed reveal no material improvement in their working conditions and were threatened and penalized when they speak out. 6 For more information of the consultants for CSR code, please visit http//www. thecsrgroup. com/ 9 H4 Finally, if CSRC can increase transaction cost of opportunism at the supplier side, more CSRC would reduce the effect of opportunism. To assess the validity of these hypotheses, this study employs data generated from a random survey of workers from 12 suppli ers of mark toy MNCs in Shenzhen and evaluates the CSRC effect using a unidimensional decimal point response theory model. The following section describes the survey and the methodology of this study. . slew and Methodology This section will discuss the survey and the methodology used this study. Section 3. 1 provides details on the survey design and the attempt frame. Section 3. 2 compares the CSR code of conduct of betrayed companies with the mandate of the International Council of Toy Industries (ICTI) and International Labor Organization (ILO) conventions. Section 3. 3 provides a ranking of CSRC travails in ground of level of barrier. Section 3. 4 demonstrates the methodology used in this study. 3. The survey The survey was conducted at the Shenzhen and Dongguan areas in Southern China, both highly concentrated with labor-intensive industries, in particular, toy factories. 17 The survey, which took place from June 2006 to March 2007, focused on the toy industrys CSRC. To systematically examine the impact of CSRC on labor conditions, this survey first used the industrial phone book and identify a ingest frame before the randomized selection of 12 toy factories in Shenzhen and Dongguan areas at Southern China.The selection of the archetype is as follows Their size should be comparable (usually around 1000 workers in each factory). This study identified 10 code factories within which there were eight suppliers with single CSR (Mattel, McDonalds, Disney, Wal-Mart) and two suppliers with two CSRCs (Disney & Wal-Mart, Mattel, and Wal-Mart). The survey also included two suppliers with akin(predicate) technologies that produce only for the domestic market as a relation group. Twenty 17 Please see attachment 1 for the backdrop of the setting, toy industry in China, and the reasons for choosing the sites in this study. 0 workers at the unveiling level were interviewed in each factory, and all the workers were interviewed anonymously. 18 A gibe of 240 workers were surveyed in this study. 19 3. 2 A Comparison of Corporate Social Responsibility Codes of Conduct table 1 shows a comparison between the statements of the study firms CSRC, the International Council of Toy Industries (ICTI) and the International Labor Organizations conventions according to publicly available information. The first editorial shows ILO conventions that are very elaborate and cover the labor conditions mentioned.However, the ILO conventions operate at the state level. That is, unless a state signed the conventions, ILO convention restrictions would not be imposed at the topical anaesthetic level. The ICTI codes at the association level and opposite firms CSRC followed the ILO conventions, but with less detail. 20 remit 1 is divided into the following sections violation of law, bargaining rights and freedom of association, workshop safety and living environment, and monitoring procedures. In basis of violation of law, all the codes indicated that t here should no child labor under 14 years of age and no squeeze labor.However, with the leave offion of the ICTI code, no private CSRC mentions maternity leave. As for the section on labor bargaining rights and freedom of association, Disney shows its regard for rights for association and collective bargaining, while the ICTI and Wal-Mart show view for rights of association only. With regard to safety and living environment, Mattels CSRC shows the most detailed description, followed by the ICTI Disney and McDonalds CSRCs show corresponding content and are less detailed than those of Mattel and ICTI. Wal-Marts CSRC shows the least detail in this aspect.For the monitoring mechanism, the ICTI CSRC mentioned auditing at the initial stage and in production, as well as a follow-up auditing during the production cycle. The ICTI also mentioned that the factory audit could review the employment record, books, and interview worker privately and the audit could be un announce to reduce the opportunism. While no individual CSRC gives such detailed monitoring mechanism description, Disney makes it clear that they can review records and books, and suppliers cannot subcontract their work further. McDonalds mentions that the suppliers management 18Understanding that suppliers may have pressure to workers not to reveal the true factory information to strangers, I have instructed the surveyors to talk to perspective workers and develop trust between each other. Surveyors would explain the survey character and ask the agreement of perspective respondents. The survey is conducted outside of the factory areas, usually at local restaurant during workers lunch time, to eliminate influence from suppliers. 19 The survey questionnaire can be provided upon request. 20 More detailed descriptions of the CSRC for ICTI can be found in its website http//www. toyicti. rg/info/codeofbusinesspractices. html. 11 should put an causa to monitor the CSRC standard, and show that the audit or can enter workers dormitory and interview the workers. Among other CSRCs, only Wal-Mart shows that it has increased efforts to monitor the suppliers in both announced and unannounced factory audits. Mattel, however, does not show any monitoring information to public. In a nutshell, individual firms CSRC could be very different and their monitoring efforts may differ from earlier observations. The following section offers basic observations about the ranking of the fuss CSRC tasks from a survey of 12 factories. 12 gameboard 1 A comparision of Toy Industries Corporate Social Responsibility Code of Codes with ILO convent International Labor Organization (ILO) convent International Council of Toy Industries (ICTI) usurpation of virtue child labor (15 yrs) (C59) minimum age of 14 * under age labor (16 yrs) No maternalism leave (C3) maternity benefits as provided by law mislabeled Over meter work (C1) (C6) ( C41) (171) by law Forced Labor (C29, C105) Labor talk call Rights and Freedom of connective negotiate Rights (C98) dicker street Employee Association (C87) Compliant to Client Labor conglutination (C87) Labor incision employ Collective Bargain (C154) diminish implement rubber eraser nd vitality purlieu Fire precaution (C155) shop class Safety (C155) Food problem Live environment problem other problem no discrimination (C111) compensation Coercion and Harassment presentation to employee monitor and inspection Unannouned Factory Audit no forced or prison labor is employed Disney 15 yrs (but 14 yrs if law allowed) Mattel stipulate by countrys law McDonald 15 yrs (but 14 yrs if law allowed) yes, only if no schooling 60hr/hebdomad, 1 day/week off no forced labor Wal-Mart not allow >14 yrs old 48/week +12 hr OT, 1/week day off except special business circumstances no forced labor overtime must be voluntary and documented, rest days with local law payroll deductions must comply with law and mattel requirment 72hr/6days, 14/24hrs no forced lab or freel employee representation by local law upplier need to respect right for association lawful union activities supplier need to respect right for Collective Bargain lawful collective bargain in lawful and peasceful manner, without penalty, interference supplier need to respect right for association sine qua non exits, trained emergency evacuation machinery safeguards >= local laws and employees trained facilities or appropriate provisions for meals and other breaks housing, rooms, well facilities meet basic needs ventilated, fire safety by local laws toilet facilities meet local hygiene requirements , and are properly maintained standards set by law fire safety adequate lighting and ventilation potable drinkng water, sanitary facilites, health and safety housing envriomental friendly race, color, gender, religion, disability with the local law or local standard, choose the higher one rogram and system for fires, spills and innate(p) disasters, emergency exit unlocked have programs to address health and safety, first aid, medical treatment canteens must be safe, sanitary, meet basic needs dormitories must be safe, sanitary, meet basic needs minimize environmental impact fire exit esential safety equipment, first aid kit, emergency care potable drinkng water, adequate, clean restrooms, appropriately-lit work station race, color, gender, religion, disability with the local law no unhealth and hazardous enviroment nontoxic material, envrionmental friendly race, color, gender, religion, disability with the local law legally mandated rates eed to have local lanuage post the CSR terms to employee 1 to 2 factory manager shall be monitor the compliance of standard yes yes, review employment record and books, yes, but no crook specified, 26% of 16000 in 2006 (6% increase) can go to housing accommodations can go to housing accommodations others Audit inculdes Initial , Follow-up, In-Production. no further subcontractor can be used. can private interviews with employees >16000 audit for 8873 suppliers in 2006 Source International Labor Organization (ILO) conventions, International Council of Toy Industries (ICTI), The Walt Disney Company Code of Conduct for Manufactures, Mattel, Inc. world-wide Manufacturing Principles, McDonalds Code of Coduct for Suppliers, Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.Standard for Suppliers *but notwithstanding the foregoing, that C138 Minimum Age Convention (1973) and C182 bastinado Forms of Child Labor Convention (1999) of the International Labor Organization apply Code posted or available for all employees in local language. need to have local lanuage post the CSR terms to employee 13 3. 3 Ranking the hassle of CSRC tasks Before going into the methodological analysis, let us examine the level of the labor problem from the survey data. This survey considers each labor problem as a task for the supplier to accomplish. The seriousness of each labor problem can be considered as the level of tighty to accomplish the task. plank 2 shows the percentage of all respondents expression the task is a problem = 1 and the task is not a problem = 0. 21 The larger the close in the variable, the greater the tot of respondents who answered 1, and the more problem is perceived in that task. The variations in these variable message are large. All the respondents cited 1 in response to concretion, which had a mean of 1. This is considered to be the most difficult problem. The two other most difficult problems are complaint to client and labor association, with 99% and 98%, respectively, with 1 on average. As only few respondents raise other problems, its mean is the lowest at 2% on average, which indicates that suppliers consider this the easiest problem. Table 2 Corporate Social Responsibility Tasks Diffculty level power point Obs Mean Std. Dev.Min Labor talk terms and Association Rights Labor Union 240 1. 00 0. 00 1 0. 99 ailment to Client 240 0. 11 0 Employee Association 240 0. 98 0. 14 0 Bargaining Rig hts 238 0. 45 0. 50 0 Bargaining Channel 240 0. 73 0. 45 0 Labor department subprogram 240 0. 48 0. 50 0 Collective Bargain 240 0. 96 0. 19 0 bring Use 240 0. 62 0. 49 0 invasion of Law child labor (>14 yrs) 238 0. 11 0. 31 0 under age labor (>16 yrs) 238 0. 34 0. 47 0 No Maternity leave 238 0. 82 0. 39 0 irregular Over fourth dimension work 238 0. 85 0. 36 0 Safety and Living Environment Fire Safety 235 0. 03 0. 18 0 shop Safety 235 0. 26 0. 44 0 Food problem 235 0. 83 0. 38 0 Live environment problem 235 0. 29 0. 46 0 0. 02 other problem 235 0. 3 0 Note the respond 1 means the task is a problem, while 0 means the task is not a problem in respondents factory. labor union has 100% respond 1 and that mean it is the hardest problem for suppliers. other problem has 2% respond with 0 and is considered to be the most easiest problem for suppliers. goo 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 21 Please see Appendix 2 for a detailed breakdown of the labor condition distribution. 14 3. 4 Methodology Table 2 presents the distribution of the CSRC task and the problem perceived. However, both the respondents knowledge of the problem and the suppliers characteristics may bias the analysis of CSRC effect on labor conditions.The respondents knowledge and the suppliers effort to implement CSRC are, however, imperceptible. To correct these unperceivable biases and obtain a uniform figure of the likelihood of suppliers problem, this methodology section proposes to use the unidimensional item response theory (UIRT) (or the Rasch) model. In general, the item response theory (IRT) is a body of theories describing the application of mathematical models to data from questionnaires and tests as a flat coat for measuring abilities, attitudes, or other variables. 22 The IRT model is based on the idea that the probability of acquiring an item correct is a function of a latent trait or ability. The UIRT model is a member of IRT family which applies to dichotomous data. 3 The UIR T model is usually used in test analysis, which can analyze the relational obstacle level of an examination question by removing the individual (the examinees) unobservable influence on the answer of the question. It is used for statistical analysis and development of sagacitys, often for high-stake tests such as the Graduate Record Examination (GRE). 24 Using the GRE as example, a soulfulness with higher intelligence would more apt(predicate) be able to correctly respond to a question in an intelligence test. This study introduces UIRT model to evaluate the impacts of CSRC on labor conditions. The UIRT model in this study estimates the probability of a worker getting a positive response in a list of the ifferent tasks by taking into account each tasks difficulty level and the different abilities, knowledge, 22 IRT models apply mathematical functions that specify the probability of a discrete outcome, such as a correct response to an item, in terms of person and item parameters . Person parameters may, for example, represent the ability of a student or the strength of a persons attitude. Item parameters include difficulty (location), discrimination (slope or correlation), and pseudoguessing (lower asymptote). Items may be questions that have incorrect or correct responses, as well as statements that allow respondents to indicate the level of agreement. 3 In general, the UIRT model estimates these outcomes using two types of predictors a persons ability and the test items difficulty level. A persons ability and the test items difficulty level are presumptuousness as X in the right side of the equation. Y is a persons response to a test item (or a survey item) and is given on the unexpended side of the equation. 24 Among other methods, IRT provides a basis for evaluating how well assessments and individual questions on assessment work. In education, psychometricians apply IRT to achieve tasks as developing and refining exams, maintaining banks of items fo r exams, and equating the difficulties of successive versions of exams (for example, to allow comparisons between results over time). 15 nd willingness level of each respondent and individual supplier. The UIRT model is especially useful in this study because this model can effectively take into account an individuals knowledge of the problem and each suppliers willingness to carry out the task. With the estimated outcomes on hand, one can compare the coition difficulty level of any task by using the easiest task (or the hardest task) that suppliers could fulfill. The last section shows that the other problem is the easiest problem among others this study will therefore use the other problem as the basis for the relative difficulty in ranking problems in the statistical analysis. 25In our context, the UIRT model is defined as follows Let us consider a sample of individuals who answer the survey as if taking a test, and assume the probability, Pij , that worker is answer yes (or 1) responds to task j and depends only on a parameter, ai , representing the respondents ability (which can represent the joint outcome of a worker level agreement of the firm and other factors such as suppliers characteristics) and another parameter, b j , representing the difficulty level of the task attempted. Assume further that for some insipid transformation, M. M ( P ) = ai ? b j ij (1) for all i and j. The odds of getting a task right decreases with tasks difficulty (and thus the minus sign before b j ). That is, an additive representation is postulated for the suitably transformed probabilities, Pij . When M is the inverse logistic transformation,M ( Pij ) = ln( Pij ) = ai ? b j 1 ? Pij (2) (ln is the natural logarithm), we have UIRT model. 25 We can also use union as a base to obtain a more precise estimation of the probability of getting a task right as the responses are all zeros. As this article focuses on the relative difficulty level of tasks, it is reasonable to use t he easiest task as the base. 16 The UIRT model has certain very suitable statistical properties for the estimation of these parameters. With the UIRT model, this grouping method can be approximated to estimate parameters. 26 We can then compare the estimated M ( Pij ) to determine the relative difficulty level of each task. robability of getting a particular task with 1 can also be calculated The as exp( M ( Pij )) /(1 + exp( M ( Pij ))) . 27 With these desirable properties of the UIRT model, this study can allow different groupings of CSRC and evaluate their effects on labor conditions by comparing the parameters. 4. Results 4. 1 Basic Result Table 3 shows the benchmark model that pooled all the factories together to investigate the overall picture of labor conditions using the UIRT model and the other problem as the basis of comparisons. As shown in Table 2, response 0 means the worker thinks that there is no problem with a particular task, while 1 means the task has problem.There fore, using the estimated coefficients, the union coefficients serve as the upper bound and the other problem as the lowest bound the interpretation of the coefficient is therefore an assessment of the relative significance of the problem against union and other problem. That is, when a task has homogeneous significance as the union, it means that the task is very difficult for suppliers, while a task that is not probatoryly different from the other problem, it means that the task is also an easy problem for suppliers. Table 3 shows (from left), the fixed effect model, the fixed effect with probability weighted, and the random effect model, respectively. All the models have passed their test of specification. Comparing 26Specifically, it can be shown (Lord & Novick, 1968, p. 429) that a respondents raw score (number of tasks correct) is a minimal sufficient statistic for his/her ability. This leads to a practical implementation of the model in that statistical estimates of abi lities and item parameters can be obtained by proceeding as if everyone with the aforementioned(prenominal) raw score has exactly the same ability. The parameter estimates are commonly computed using conditional maximum likelihood CMLE and yield consistent estimates of item parameters (Andersen, 1973). 27 Obviously, the Pij is unobservable, as are ability and item parameters. Estimates of the Pij (and, hence, the ai and b j could be obtained if it were possible to give a respondent the same question about a task on restate occasions, and his/her responses were in low-level over trials. Clearly, this is not possible. Alternatively, the probabilities could be estimated if a worker with similar ability could be identified. Assuming a group of people with the same ability, as individuals respond to items independently, the observed proportion of individuals within the group who respond positively to task j is an estimate of the probability that any given person from that group passes the task. 17 the fixed effect model and the model with probability weighted, the ranking of variables coefficients is in the same order. There is no soft difference between the two models.In fact, the coefficient value and the ranking are superposable between the fixed effect model in the first mainstay and the random effect model in the third column, suggesting that heterogeneity is not a problem and the random effect model is not unavoidable. 28 Therefore, this study will be based on the fixed effect model for extended models in the subsequent sections. Union, complaint to client, and employee association are the top three difficult tasks for suppliers. The estimated probability of union, complaint to client, and employee association in the fixed effect model is 1, 0. 9998, and 0. 9996, respectively, suggesting a 100%, 99. 98%, and 99. 96% chance of getting these tasks with a problem. These estimated probabilities are very consistent with the statistics in Table 2. This refle cts that CSRC may not be very helpful for labor union and freedom of association activities.All the tasks in the model are positively and significantly different from the other problem, suggesting that these problems warrant our attention, except the fire safety problem. The reason why the fire safety problem is not sponsorly cited as a problem may be attributed to the fact that after(prenominal) a fatal factory fire in Shenzhen area in the early 1990s, a workshop-level fire safety law has been introduced. Since then, labor NGOs and the local government have paid attention to fire safety in workplaces. 29 After a brief overview about the problem with the pooled data, the neighboring section tests hypotheses about the effectiveness of the different CSRCs and the problem of opportunism at the supplier level. 28When reading across the columns, one should avoid directly comparing the coefficients among different models as the assumptions are different. However, we can focus on the r elative importance of variables in each model. 29 For a detailed discussion about the labor movement and the history about the event, read AMRC (2004 41-82). 18 Table 3 Unidimensional Item answer place for Labor Conditions Fixed topic Item Coef. Labor Bargaining and Association Rights Union 22. 71 (1. 82) guardianship to Client 8. 37 (0. 9) Employee Association 7. 85 (0. 76) Bargaining Rights 3. 87 (0. 61) Bargaining Channel 5. 03 (0. 59) Labor department Use 3. 99 (0. 58) Collective Bargain 7. 25 (0. 73) Strike Use 4. 54 (0. ) Violation of Law Child labor (>14 yrs) 1. 96 (0. 6) Under age labor (>16 yrs) 3. 38 (0. 61) Maternity leave 5. 51 (0. 62) Illegal Over Time work 5. 74 (0. 63) Safety and Living Environment Fire Safety 0. 71 (0. 7) Workshop Safety 3. 01 (0. 61) Food problem 5. 58 (0. 65) Live environment problem 3. 18 (0. 61) constent Number of obs F( 16, 239) Prob > F pseudo R2 Linktest _hat 4045. 00 10551. 86 0. 00 0. 49 0. 00 1. 00 P>z 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0 . 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 Fixed Effect with p-weighted Coef. P>z 28. 30 (0. 59) 10. 70 (0. 92) 10. 52 (0. 78) 4. 72 (0. 61) 6. 14 (0. 61) 5. 09 (0. 6) 9. 39 (0. 75) 5. 33 (0. 61) 2. 56 (0. 66) 4. 03 (0. 61) 6. 2 (0. 62) 7. 99 (0. 67) 1. 58 (0. 78) 4. 47 (0. 61) 7. 28 (0. 65) 4. 74 (0. 62) 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 Random Effect Coef. 29. 19 (9. 73) 8. 44 (0. 9) 7. 92 (0. 76) 3. 88 (0. 61) 5. 05 (0. 6) 3. 99 (0. 58) 7. 31 (0. 72) 4. 56 (0. 6) 1. 96 (0. 6) 3. 38 (0. 61) 5. 55 (0. 62) 5. 79 (0. 63) 0. 71 (0. 7) 3. 01 (0. 61) 5. 62 (0. 65) 3. 18 (0. 61) 4. 06 (0. 58) 4045. 00 F( 16, 239) Prob > F /lnsig2u P>z 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 31 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 04 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 31 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 4045. 00 88251. 79 0. 0 0. 55 1. 00 (0. 13) 0. 00 (0. 01) 0. 00 1. 00 1. 00 (0. 13) _hatsq 0. 00 (0. 01) new(prenominal) caper is the basis for the comparison Jacknife standard error in aside 60. 68 0. 00 -4. 55 (0. 29) sigma_u 0. 10 (0. 02) Prob >= chibar2 0. 40 Likelihood-ratio test 0. 08 19 4. 2 Which CSR code is better? As shown in Table 1, different branded companies may have differences in the CSRC statement. This section aims to evaluate the effect of an individual brand companys CSRC on labor conditions and to understand the relationships between companys CSRC statement and CSRC outcomes. Table 4 shows the UIRT model for labor conditions by different CSRCs.As there are suppliers with more than one CSRC, this study will pool suppliers with same CSRC to estimate the difficulty level of relative tasks. For example, as the survey has one supplier with Disney only but two suppliers with Disney & Wal-Mart, this study combines these three supplier data into the UIRT model. As discussed in the methodology section, the UIRT model can then essentially extract the common information from these Disney suppliers and investigate the aggre gated Disney CSRC effect. Table 4 ranks the CSRC according to the number of tasks similar to the difficulty level of union, descending from left (the easiest task) to right (the most difficult task).In Table 4, columns 1 to 5 show suppliers with a larger number of problems and the lowest number of problems similar to the difficulty level of the problem union. They are non-CSRC suppliers (with 6 problems), McDonalds (5 problems), Mattel (2 problems), Disney (2 problems), and Wal-Mart (with 0 problem). The first observation is that the most serious problems are concentrated on labor bargaining and association rights. When charge on individual CSRC in this section, the non-CSRC suppliers in cited in the first column show that five tasks have the same difficulty level as union. In contrast, there are no such tasks for the Wal-Mart suppliers, suggesting that they may redact less serious labor bargaining and association rights problems.While we focus on the tasks with the lowest bound of difficulty, Disney suppliers may have more (6 tasks) tasks that are insignificantly different from the other problem. This means that Disneys suppliers may be less likely to have labor bargaining and association problems. Why so? Can the mission statements of CSRC give some useful information? As Table 1 shows, Disneys mission statement provides a more detailed description than other CSRCs with respect to the labor bargaining and association problems. However, while there is no explicit statement about labor bargaining and association problems in the McDonalds CSRC, its suppliers are more likely to bill violations over other CSRCs, as shown in the second column of Table 4. On 20 he whole, it seems that the CSRC could have some positive impacts on labor bargaining and association problems, and the effects would be dependent on the details of the CSRC statements. 30 Let us now discuss the violation of laws. While the non-CSRC suppliers may have serious problems regarding materni ty leave, McDonalds suppliers may have serious problems with illegal overtime work when compared with the labor union problem. This is consistent with McDonalds CSRC statement the most concise among other CSRCs on illegal overtime work. When focusing on the insignificant problem, an arouse pattern emerged the tasks that are not as serious as other problems are inversely distributed along the columns, except for Wal-Mart suppliers.Disney suppliers continually outperform other CSRCs with no tasks considered significant, while Wal-Mart suppliers show significance in all the tasks. While Table 1 does not show any significant difference between Wal-Marts CSRC compared to the other CSRC in this issue, the results may be affected by the fact that these suppliers do not produce goods only for Wal-Mart. The following(a) subsection analyzes the number of CSRCs and its the impact on labor conditions. In terms of safety and living environment issues, all suppliers under this study do not in dicate significant problems on fire safety. However, the non-CSRC suppliers are systematically worse than other suppliers in terms of workshop safety and fodder problem.Indeed, food seems to be a common problem among suppliers, except for Disney suppliers. reproducible with results in labor bargaining and association rights, Disney suppliers outperform other CSRC suppliers because no task is significantly different from the other problem. In all the three sections, Disney suppliers continually outperform other CSRCs. This result seems to be consistent with Disneys CSRC statement, shown in Table 1. Some suppliers work for more than one CSRC, which may mean more transaction costs in avoiding the CSRC. It is interesting to explore how the number of CSRCs affect firms. 30 Certainly, we can just observe the CSRC statement, but efforts to enforce the statement terms are unobservable.As discussed in the methodology section, the UIRT model is a tool to remove unobservable influences and obtain consistent estimates of the difficulty level of tasks. 21 Table 4 Unidimensional Item Response Model for Labor Conditions by different CSR code No CSR code McDonalds Mattel Item Coef. Pt Coef. Pt Coef. Pt Labor Bargaining and Association Rights Union 42. 38 0. 00 41. 63 0. 00 19. 98 0. 00 (4. 33) (4. 15) (3. 01) Complaint to Client 42. 38 0. 00 41. 63 0. 00 5. 53 0. 00 (4. 33) (4. 15) (0. 94) 42. 38 41. 63 19. 98 Employee Association 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 (4. 33) (4. 15) (3. 01) Bargaining Rights 42. 38 0. 00 -0. 03 0. 26 0. 28 0. 77 (4. 33) (0. 03) (0. 3) Bargaining Channel 42. 38 0. 00 21. 30 0. 00 19. 98 0. 00 (4. 33) (2. 27) (3. 01) Labor department Use 0. 00 0. 87 20. 67 0. 00 2. 69 0. 00 (0. 00) (2. 01) (0. 68) Collective Bargain 42. 38 0. 00 41. 63 0. 00 4. 80 0. 00 (4. 33) (4. 15) (0. 89) Strike Use 20. 77 0. 00 41. 63 0. 00 1. 48 0. 05 (2. 30) (4. 15) (0. 74) Violation of Law Child labor (14 yrs) Under age labor (16 yrs) Maternity leave Illegal Over Time work 0. 00 (0. 00) 19. 92 (1. 77) 42. 38 (4. 33) 0. 87 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 -0. 03 (0. 03) -0. 03 (0. 03) 21. 92 (2. 44) 41. 63 (4. 15) 0. 00 (0. 00) 0. 00 (0. 00) 21. 84 (2. 43) 0. 26 0. 26 0. 00 0. 00 0. 28 (0. 93) 0. 51 (0. 9) 3. 83 (0. 77) 5. 23 (0. 99) 0. 30 (0. 93) 2. 29 (0. 78) 4. 01 (0. 88) 0. 77 0. 57 0. 00 0. 00 Disney Coef. 23. 12 (13. 27) 23. 12 (13. 27) 6. 32 (13. 94) 4. 63 (14. 02) 3. 24 (14. 00) 4. 87 (13. 94) 8. 00 (19. 73) 23. 12 (13. 27) 2. 94 (13. 92) 4. 48 (14. 02) 6. 49 (14. 24) 5. 35 (14. 05) 1. 13 (14. 02) 3. 27 (14. 01) 7. 97 (28. 15) Pt 0. 09 0. 09 0. 65 0. 74 0. 82 0. 73 0. 69 0. 09 0. 83 0. 75 0. 65 0. 71 21. 01 (1. 94) Safety and Living Environment Fire Safety Workshop Safety Food problem 0. 00 (0. 00) 21. 01 (1. 94) 20. 89 (1. 91) 0. 87 0. 00 0. 00 0. 34 0. 31 0. 00 0. 75 0. 01 0. 00 0. 94 0. 82 22 0. 78 4. 3 Is more CSRC better?This section focuses on the number of CSRCs if more CSRCs increase transaction costs for suppliers, which in turn results in violations of the CS RC, then there should be less violation with regard to labor conditions as the number of CSRCs increases. Table 5 shows the UIRT model for labor conditions according to the number of CSR code. The nonCSRC supplier column is the same as in Table 4, while the 1 CSRC column has a pool of suppliers with a single CSRC and 2 CSRC suppliers include Mattel Wal-Mart and Disney Wal-Mart. The pattern of violations in labor conditions in Table 8 is consistent with the hypothesis that more CSRCs is better to control opportunism at the suppliers level the suppliers of 2 CSRCs incessantly outperform the 1 CSRC suppliers and the non-CSRC suppliers on the control of labor conditions.For example, in terms of labor bargaining and association rights, the number of tasks with a similar significant coefficient as union is 5 in No CSRC suppliers, 2 in 1 CSRC supplier, and none in 2 CSRC suppliers. All the estimation results in violation of law and safety and living environment show that the tasks relat ive to coefficients are reduced as the number of CSRC increases. These results are consistent with the perspective that an increase in the number of CSRCs may increase the transaction costs of opportunism at the suppliers level. However, suppliers may also have measures to reduce governance effects from CSRC. The effects of different measures of opportunism are investigated in the next section. 23 24Table 5 Unidimensional Item Response Model for Labor Conditions by number of CSR code No CSR code 1 CSR code 2 CSR codes Item Coef. Pt Coef. Pt Coef. Labor Bargaining and Association Rights Union 42. 38 0. 00 39. 19 0. 00 19. 40 (4. 33) (0. 31) (3. 12) Complaint to Client 42. 38 0. 00 39. 19 0. 00 6. 11 (4. 33) (0. 31) (0. 89) Employee Association 42. 38 0. 00 39. 19 0. 00 5. 57 (4. 33) (0. 31) (0. 76) Bargaining Rights 42. 38 0. 00 19. 10 0. 00 2. 02 (4. 33) (0. 26) (0. 67) Bargaining Channel 42. 38 0. 00 20. 14 0. 00 3. 92 (4. 33) (0. 20) (0. 64) Labor department Use 0. 00 0. 87 19. 7 3 0. 00 3. 51 (0. 00) (0. 25) (0. 58) Collective Bargain 42. 38 0. 00 23. 61 0. 00 5. 21 (4. 33) (0. 98) (0. 6) Strike Use 20. 77 0. 00 20. 24 0. 00 3. 51 (2. 30) (0. 26) (0. 64) Violation of Law Child labor (14 yrs) Under age labor (16 yrs) Maternity leave Illegal Over Time work Safety and Living Environment Fire Safety Workshop Safety Food problem Live environment problem 0. 00 (0. 00) 21. 01 (1. 94) 20. 89 (1. 91) 0. 87 0. 00 0. 00 0. 87 15. 47 (0. 87) 14. 77 (14. 65) 22. 30 (0. 42) 18. 70 (0. 23) 2030. 00 0. 64 0. 00 0. 32 0. 00 0. 00 0. 43 (0. 76) 2. 98 (0. 68) 4. 48 (0. 79) 2. 72 (0. 67) 1335. 00 0. 40 0. 00 (0. 00) 19. 92 (1. 77) 42. 38 (4. 33) 21. 01 (1. 94) 0. 87 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 17. 05 (0. 41) 19. 27 (0. 24) 20. 85 (0. 24) 24. 31 (15. 01) 0. 0 0. 00 0. 00 0. 11 1. 61 (0. 64) 1. 76 (0. 67) 4. 07 (0. 67) 4. 30 (0. 70) Pt 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 01 0. 01 0. 00 0. 00 0. 57 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 (0. 00) Number of obs 680. 00 Pseudo R2 0. 84 new(pr enominal) Problem is the basis for the comparison Jacknife standard error in excursion 4. 4 Suppliers broadsides to circumvent CSRC auditing 25 When considering other transaction costs of governing body with the CSRC, suppliers may apply different strategies to get around the CSRC auditing. Because most CSRC auditing would give advance notice to suppliers, suppliers would have room for measures to circumvent the auditing.This study has documented some of the common supplier measures to circumvent CSRC auditing fire drill, trained question, giving a holiday, cleaning the factory, and safety drill. Certainly, suppliers may use more than one measure to get around the CSRC auditing it is likely that suppliers with more labor problems would use more measures to cover up their problems. This section first looks at the number of measures that may be associated with labor problems. We then investigate how the different measures affect labor conditions. Table 6 shows the UIRT model for th e number of measures to circumvent CSRC auditing. The first column of Table 6 shows the result of no measure. A response of no measure to circumvent CSRC auditing is associated with no significant measures that are different from other problem, suggesting that a supplier without any measure for CSRC auditing is performing relatively well in terms of labor conditions. The second column, i. e. , one measure to circumvent CSRC auditing, shows a very different pattern. Although no task is as difficult as the union problem, all tasks show a significant coefficient, except the fire safety problem. The third column, two or more measures, indicates an even stronger coefficient in all the tasks than the column with one measure. Furthermore, the task complaint to client is as strong as union in this column.When comparing the three columns in Table 6, it appears that the more the measures suppliers use, the higher the likelihood they commit more labor problems. This is consistent with the tra nsaction cost hypothesis that opportunism may increase the transaction cost of governing with the CSRC. It is not necessary that all measures have an equal effect on labor problems. The next section shows the effect of individual measure of CSRC auditing on labor problems. 26 Table 6 Unidimensional Item Response Model for Labor Conditions by Number of Suppliers Measure No Measure One Measure Two or More Measures Item Labor Bargaining and Association Rights Union 19. 88 0. 22 20. 47 0. 0 34. 57 0. 00 (15. 58) (3. 66) (4. 30) Complaint to Client 5. 35 0. 79 7. 34 0. 00 34. 57 0. 00 (19. 88) (1. 20) (4. 30) Employee Association 5. 35 0. 79 7. 34 0. 00 20. 80 0. 00 (20. 03) (1. 21) (2. 85) Bargaining Rights 1. 64 0. 92 2. 40 0. 00 17. 16 0. 00 (15. 09) (0. 77) (2. 19) Bargaining Channel 3. 47 0. 82 4. 24 0. 00 17. 84 0. 00 (14. 91) (0. 74) (2. 13) Labor department Use 3. 20 0. 83 3. 85 0. 00 17. 42 0. 00 (14. 89) (0. 71) (2. 17) Collective Bargain 19. 88 0. 22 6. 63 0. 00 19. 85 0. 00 ( 15. 58) (1. 03) (2. 30) Strike Use 2. 94 0. 85 3. 78 0. 00 18. 47 0. 00 (15. 15) (0. 73) (2. 18) Violation of Law Child labor (>14 yrs) -14. 1 0. 34 1. 26 0. 09 15. 87 0. 00 (14. 61) (0. 74) (2. 18) Under age labor (>16 yrs) 2. 24 0. 88 2. 59 0. 00 16. 91 0. 00 (15. 11) (0. 77) (2. 12) Maternity leave 2. 77 0. 86 4. 60 0. 00 18. 89 0. 00 (15. 14) (0. 76) (2. 20) Illegal Over Time work 5. 23 0. 80 6. 39 0. 00 19. 09 0. 00 (19. 94) (1. 06) (2. 26) Safety and Living Environment Fire Safety 0. 00 1. 00 0. 73 0. 40 12. 91 0. 32 (22. 56) (0. 86) (12. 82) Workshop Safety 0. 00 1. 00 2. 03 0. 01 16. 24 0. 00 (22. 56) (0. 78) (2. 09) Food problem 4. 13 0. 79 5. 10 0. 00 21. 50 0. 16 (15. 39) (0. 86) (15. 24) Live environment problem 2. 19 0. 89 2. 67 0. 00 16. 88 0. 00 (15. 10) (0. 77) (2. 2) Number of obs 267. 00 1777. 00 1321. 00 Pseudo R2 0. 52 0. 51 0. 52 Other Problem is the basis for the comparison Jacknife standard error in parenthesis Suppliers measures to circumvent CSRC auditin g include fire drill, trained question, giving a holiday, Cleaning the Factory, and Safety commit. 27 4. 4 Suppliers Measures to circumvent CSRC auditing Table 7 shows the UIRT model for individual measures to circumvent CSRC auditing. The measures in this study include fire drill, safety drill, giving a holiday, trained question, and cleaning the factory. As the safety drill estimation is not converged, Table 10 shows only the four other supplier measures.Table 7 ranks the measures according to the number of the most serious tasks (compared to union) from the left, namely, fire drill (6 tasks), giving a holiday (4 tasks), trained question (0 task), and cleaning the factory (0 task). Why do fire drill suppliers have the most tasks similar to the union coefficient? As discussed in the last subsection, fire safety is one of the most serious areas that the Chinese local authorities are concerned with, and it is the most frequent task to be checked during a factory visit. If a supplier has not even met the basic standard of the fire safety, it is reasonable to popularise that other tasks are likely to be a problem as well. This is similar in the case of holidays for workers meaning that the supplier tries to prohibit workers from disclosure this fact.As giving holidays for a busy factory is costly, suppliers are likely to create more than one problem in the task. Trained question is one of the most common ways that suppliers try to get around CSRC auditing during the worker interview. Suppliers try to train workers with model answers that fit the CSRC auditing interview questions. The trained question effect may be very limited as only trained workers model their answers to the interview question, and this cannot cover other the problems in the factory. It is clear that the trained question may have fewer problems than fire drill and giving a holiday. Cleaning the factory was found the least serious measure.Only suppliers who are confident with their labor co nditions would use cleaning the factory to rarify their workshop. 28 Table 7Unidimensional Item Response Model for Labor Conditions by Suppliers Measure Fire Drill Give holiday Trained question Cleaning Factory Item Coef. P>t Coef. P>t Coef. P>t Coef. P>t Labor Bargaining and Association Rights Union 40. 28 0. 00 39. 74 0. 00 35. 79 0. 00 21. 80 0. 00 (1. 05) (3. 83) (5. 39) (2. 87) Complaint to Client 40. 28 0. 00 39. 74 0. 00 21. 55 0. 00 8. 79 0. 49 (1. 05) (3. 83) (2. 80) (12. 70) Employee Association 40. 28 0. 00 22. 22 0. 24 21. 55 0. 00 7. 68 0. 00 (1. 05) (18. 58) (2. 98) (1. 00) Bargaining Rights 18. 38 0. 29 0. 00 0. 75 17. 88 0. 00 3. 5 0. 00 (14. 33) (0. 00) (2. 78) (0. 75) Bargaining Channel 18. 38 0. 00 39. 74 0. 00 18. 36 0. 00 4. 47 0. 00 (0. 45) (3. 83) (2. 62) (0. 73) Labor department Use 21. 11 0. 00 16. 38 0. 32 18. 07 0. 00 4. 38 0. 00 (0. 61) (16. 06) (2. 69) (0. 71) Collective Bargain 40. 28 0. 00 39. 74 0. 00 20. 60 0. 00 6. 54 0. 00 (1. 05) (3. 83) (2. 81) (0. 85) Strike Use 40. 28 0. 00 17. 62 0. 00 19. 30 0. 00 4. 85 0. 00 (1. 05) (1. 31) (2. 88) (0. 74) Violation of Law Child labor (>14 yrs) 0. 00 0. 45 18. 35 0. 00 16. 41 0. 00 2. 01 0. 01 (0. 00) (1. 70) (2. 61) (0. 73) Under age labor (>16 yrs) 18. 38 0. 29 18. 00 0. 00 17. 51 0. 00 3. 33 0. 00 (14. 3) (2. 04) (2. 60) (0. 75) Maternity leave 21. 11 0. 25 22. 22 0. 27 19. 09 0. 00 5. 22 0. 00 (14. 97) (19. 80) (2. 72) (0. 74) Illegal Over Time work 40. 28 0. 00 22. 22 0. 27 19. 85 0. 00 6. 14 0. 00 (1. 05) (19. 80) (2. 72) (0. 85) Safety and Living Environment Fire Safety 0. 00 0. 39 0. 00 0. 75 14. 16 0. 00 0. 72 0. 40 (0. 00) (0. 00) (2. 54) (0. 85) Workshop Safety 0. 00 0. 38 0. 00 0. 75 16. 77 0. 00 2. 84 0. 00 (0. 00) (0. 00) (2. 70) (0. 75) Food problem 40. 28 0. 00 39. 74 0. 00 20. 59 0. 00 6. 11 0. 00 (1. 05) (3. 83) (2. 87) (0. 89) Live environment problem 18. 38 0. 00 21. 51 0. 00 17. 53 0. 00 2. 88 0. 00 (0. 45) (2. 15) (2. 72) (0. 5) Number of obs 85. 00 408. 00 1440. 00 2452. 00 Pseudo R2 0. 83 0. 88 0. 49 0. 50 Other Problem is the basis for the comparison Jacknife standard error in parenthesis except the fire estimation, which indicates standard error in parenthesis. Safety Drill is not converged in estimation. 29 Robustness Check For convenience, the estimation of the UIRT model in Table 7 uses the other problem as a base. However, as the other problem is not exactly along zero in the data, there may be a problem in estimating the true probability of the task. More importantly, there may be problem of the UIRT assumption about the zero covariance among items in the estimation.This robustness check uses the union as a base in Table 8, which reruns the UIRT model in Table 5. If the zero covariance assumption is violated, using the upper bound of the problem, the union, as the base of estimation will give very different results. However, if the zero covariance assumption is not violated, as this estimation uses union as a base, the coefficient will be interpreted exactly opposite to that given in Table 5 those problems with larger and significant coefficients given in Table 5 should now be close to zero and insignificant in Table 8 and vice versa. Most of the coefficients here are negatively signed, suggesting that they are weaker than the union problem.Non-CSRC suppliers are seen to have six problems (complaint to client, employee association, bargaining rights, bargaining channel, collective bargain, and maternity leave), 1 CSRC has two problems (complaint to client and emplo